Plays and Drama

“Story Truth” and “Happening Truth” in the Things They...

The Things They Carried Analysis â€Å"Story Truth† and â€Å"Happening Truth† in The Things They Carried Throughout The Things They Carried, by Tim O’Brien it is difficult to separate what is fictitious, and what is true. During the entire work there are two different â€Å"truths†, which are â€Å"story truth† and â€Å"happening truth†. â€Å"Happening truth† is the actual events that happen, and is the foundation or time line on which the story is built on. â€Å"Story truth† is the molding or re-shaping of the â€Å"happening truth† that allows the story to be believable and enjoyable. It is not easy to distinguish â€Å"happening truth† from â€Å"story truth†, and at times during the novel O’brien reveals which is which. On the other hand, when the reader is blind to†¦show more content†¦Martha gave it to me herself’† (28). This makes the reader believe that the Tim O’brien who wrote the book is indeed the Tim O’brien that is in the book, therefore this must be a true st ory from his experiences in the Vietnam War. All the more, at the end of the chapter he even asks Jimmy Cross permission to write the book the reader is looking at right then and there, â€Å"At the end, though, as we were walking out to his car, I told him that I’d like to write a story about some of this†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Why not?’ he said†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Make me out to be a good guy, okay? Brave and handsome, all that stuff. Best platoon leader ever’† (29-30). Like stated before, it is nearly impossible for a blind reader to distinguish the â€Å"happening truth† from â€Å"story truth†, but it is possible that Tim O’brien and Jimmy Cross did in fact meet and talk for a day, but the honest facts may be twisted by â€Å"story truth†. For example, O’Brien may not remember his and Jimmy Cross’ conversation throughout that entire day in great detail; therefore he may have had to formulate and make up certain parts i n order to fill in holes and perhaps make the interaction more interesting. The first three words of the chapter â€Å"How to Tell a True War Story† are, â€Å"This is true† (67). Although Tim O’Brien begins this chapter with such a bold and clear statement, throughout the chapter he has the reader thinking and confused when he contradicts himself by stating things such as, â€Å"In many cases a true war story cannotShow MoreRelatedEssay about The Things They Carried Literary Analysis764 Words   |  4 PagesLiterary Analysis of The Things They Carried: Metafiction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Tim O’Brien brings the characters and stories to life in The Things They Carried. He uses a writing style that brings stories to life by posing questions between the relationship of reality and fiction (Calloway 249). This is called metafiction and it exposes the truth through the literary experience. Tim O’Brien uses metafiction to make the characters and stories in The Things They Carried realistically evocative of the VietnamRead MoreLiterary Devices Used in the Things They Carried Essay895 Words   |  4 PagesLiterary Devices Used In The Things They Carried By: Tom Vennemann The Things They Carried by Tim OBrien expresses the importance of a story-truth, as opposed to a happening-truth by use of literary elements in his writing. The novel is about war and the guilt it leaves on everyone involved in the war. Story-truth is not exactly what happened, but uses part of the truth and part made up in order to express the truth of what emotion was felt, which an important thematic element in the novel isRead MoreThe Things They Carries by Tim O ´brien768 Words   |  3 Pages What is â€Å"truth†? In The Things They Carried, the reader has their eyes opened to a new kind of â€Å"truth†; a â€Å"truth† that is not based on the honesty of events, the â€Å"happening-truth†, but the honesty of human nature, the â€Å"story-truth.† The novel itself, The Things They Carried, is comprised of many different stories based on the author Tim O’Brien’s service in the Vietnam war. Recalling from memories of his servic e, Tim O’Brien intricately weaves fact and fiction into his novel to force the readerRead MoreThe Things They Carried By Tim O Brien Essay832 Words   |  4 Pageslarge they carried these things inside, maintaining the masks of composure† (21). In Tim O’brien’s The Things They Carried, the American soldiers of the Vietnam War carry much more than the weight of their equipment, much more than souvenirs or good-luck charms or letters from home. They carried within themselves the intransitive burdens—of fear, of cowardice, of love, of loneliness, of anger, of confusion. Most of all, they carry the truth of what happened to them in the war—a truth that only thoseRead MoreAnalysis Of The Novel The Things They Carried 1034 Words   |  5 Pageswhat a story is, opinions vary drastically. To one person, a story is merely a past recollection and to another it is a fictional piece of literature meant to teach or entertain its audience. Others may g o so far as to argue only the truth is of importance in a story. Tim O’Brien expands on the true significance of a story in his novel The Things They Carried. He uses the scene of a real war with fictional additions to convey the message of the brutality of war, emphasizing the idea of the truth of theRead MoreDifference Between Truth And Story Truth936 Words   |  4 Pagesto know why story-truth is truer sometimes than happening-truth† (O’Brien 171). When telling a story, people often exaggerate details, characters and other events in the story in order to make it more interesting. Why do people do this? Do they do it because they feel that the story lacked something and needs to be expanded upon, or is it something else. This way of telling a story is especially prevalent in Tim O’Brien’s book The Things They Carried, which is a collection of stories about the VietnamRead MoreThe Things They Carried : Writing Task1107 Words   |  5 PagesThe T hings They Carried - Writing Task By Charlie Evans – Word Count: 1099 Storytelling is the interactive art of using words and actions to reveal the elements and images of a story while encouraging the reader’s imagination. Tim O’Brien the author of the novel The Things They Carried demonstrates storytelling to maximise the significance of story truth versus happening truth and the focus on emotion and feeling, not the events. These main ideas O’Brien displays is reinforced through the choicesRead MoreThe Things They Carried By Tim O Brien978 Words   |  4 PagesThere is only one kind of truth, no matter what author Tim O’Brien may think and say in his novel The Things They Carried. As he explains it, story-truth is more of a way to allow someone to comprehend what he went through or felt. Then, what he calls happening-truth is the nut-and-bolt facts of what really happened. But I find serious fault with his definition. Story-truth is not truth. It is not what happened, it is just a way to lie about what really happened. Ha ppening-truth is what really happenedRead More OBriens Things They Carried Essay: Truth, Fiction, and Human Emotion1272 Words   |  6 PagesThe Things They Carried: Truth, Fiction, and Human Emotion  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There are many levels of truth in Tim OBriens The Things They Carried. This novel deals with story-telling as an act of communication and therapy, rather than a mere recital of fact. In the telling of war stories, and instruction in their telling, OBrien shows that truth is unimportant in communicating human emotion through stories. OBriens writing style is so vivid, the reader frequently finds himself accepting theRead MoreAnalysis Of Tim O BriensThe Things They Carried1156 Words   |  5 Pagesplaguing thing it is to have a man’s mind torn asunder by two projects of equal strength, both obstinately pulling in a contrary direction at the same time.† By interpreting this quote, Stern says that no one can understand what it feels like for a man to have his mind torn apart by two equivalent forces that pull him apart in opposite directions inside. There was much underlying meaning and connection from Laurence Stern’s quote and to The Things They Carried. In The Things They Carried, Tim O’Brien

The Definition of Prose Free Essays

string(75) " journal refers to a serious, scholarly publication that is peer-reviewed\." A. DEFINITION OF PROSE Prose  is a form of  language  which applies ordinary  grammatical structure  and  natural flow of speech  rather than  rhythmic structure  (as in traditional  poetry). While there are  critical debates  on the construction of prose, its simplicity and loosely defined structure has led to its adoption for the majority of spoken dialogue, factual discourse as well as topical and fictional writing. We will write a custom essay sample on The Definition of Prose or any similar topic only for you Order Now It is commonly used, for example, in literature, newspapers,  magazines, encyclopedias, broadcasting, film,  history,  philosophy, law  and many other forms of communication. Prose is a form of writing that does not fall into any particular formal structure and types of prose can include drama, articles, novels, short stories, letters, history, philosophy and biographies. Prose is a term applied to any kind of discourse that is not poetry. This term usually, but not always, refers to written rather than spoken language. As the format of everyday communication, the term prose can apply to anything from a business letter to a 600-page novel. It may be easier to define prose by examining how it differs from poetry: the distinctions between the two are most evident in the structure. Prose does not have a rhythmical construction like most poetry, nor does it utilize the specific line breaks associated with verse. It does not require the use of rhyming words at the end of lines, and it is does not employ the brevity and economical use of words for which poetry is often known. There are some elements of poetry, however, that prose does utilize. These elements include the use of metaphor, the comparison of two unlike objects, and alliteration — the use of similar sounds at the beginning of words. Prose can also employ imagery, a term for the use of specific details that help to create the concrete visual world in the mind’s eye. Imagery is like a painting made out of words. From the Latin words prosa oratio, which mean â€Å"direct speech,† prose is the dominant form in literature. It the accepted mode of writing for novels, short stories, plays and folk tales. This form is also used on the Internet and in everyday business communication B. TYPES OF PROSE There are seven types of prose which is regular speech or writing, not poetry. 1. Short Story Short Stories are a kind of prose that normally comprises of less than 10,000 to 20,000 words but can be limited to as less as 500 words. This form of prose has been around for thousands of years and probably the oldest example is an Egyptian short story entitled â€Å"The Two Brothers†, from around 3200 B. C. A  short story  is a work of fiction, usually written in  narrative  prose. Often depicting few characters and concentrating a ‘single effect’ or mood, it differs from the  anecdote  in its use of  plot, and the variety of  literary techniques  it shares with the more extensive  novel. Although the short story is expressly defined by its length, the precise length of stories that can be considered ‘short’ varies between critics and writers, especially when taking account of the diversity of the form across genres. As such, the short story is defined relative to other prose forms in various traditions and styles, with the precise length of each story determined by each author’s artistic intent or the requirements of the plot or depiction. Like the novel, the short story tradition has been defined and shaped through the markets available for publication, and thus, the form can be practically traced through the submission guidelines of publishing houses, print and online media that have solicited them. The short story has been considered both an apprenticeship form preceding more lengthy works, and a crafted form in its own right, collected together in books of similar length, price and distribution as novels. Thus, short story writers may define their works as part of the artistic and personal expression of the form. They may also attempt to resist categorization by genre and fixed form, finding such approaches limiting and counter-intuitive to artistic form and reasoning. 2. Factual Prose This is generally used for the writing of novels and short stories. Although examples of this kind of prose has existed throughout history, they did not actually develop into a systematic form until a few centuries ago. 3. Letters Letters are a form of prose that are a written or printed communication addressed to a person or organization which are usually transmitted by mail. 4. Novels Novels are a long story written in prose which gives a lot more freedom to the writer to experiment with lots of different literacy forms in one novel. 5. Diaries Diaries are a record of daily events, appointments, observations, etc. Or a book for keeping such a record and can be used in a personal sense or by a business. Three other kinds of prose are testimonies, journals and the personal essay which are less commonly used. 6. Testimony Some published oral or written autobiographical narratives are considered â€Å"testimonial literature† particularly when they present evidence or first person accounts of human rights abuses, violence and war, and living under conditions of social oppression. This usage of the term comes originally from Latin America and the Spanish term â€Å"testimonio† when it emerged from human rights tribunals, truth commissions, and other international human rights instruments in countries such as Chile and Argentina. One of the most famous, though controversial, of these works to be translated into English is I, Rigoberta Menchu. The autobiographies of Frederick Douglass can be considered among the earliest significant English-language works in this genre. 7. Journal A journal (through French from Latin diurnalis, daily) has several related meanings: * a daily record of events or business; a private journal is usually referred to as a diary * a newspaper or other periodical, in the literal sense of one published each day * many publications issued at stated intervals, such as magazines, academic journals, or the record of the transactions of a society are often called journals. Although journal is sometimes used as a synonym for â€Å"magazine†, in academic use, a journal refers to a serious, scholarly publication that is peer-reviewed. You read "The Definition of Prose" in category "Essay examples" A non-scholarly magazine written for an educated audience about an industry or an area of professional activity is usually called a professional magazine. 8. Personal essay â€Å"For more than four hundred years, the personal essay has been one of the richest and most vibrant of all literary forms. † (The Art of the Personal Essay by Phillip Lopate. ) The personal essay is also one of the most popular forms of creative nonfiction. A personal essay can be based on a personal experience that results in a lesson that you learn. A personal essay can also be a personal opinion about a topic or issue that is important to you. This article defines the personal essay. * Definition of the Personal Essay A personal essay is either a personal narrative in which the author writes about a personal incident or experience that provided significant personal meaning or a lesson learned, or it is a personal opinion about some topic or issue that is important to the writer. * Personal Essay as a Personal Narrative A personal narrative has the following elements: * It is based on a personal experience in which you have gained significant meaning, insight, or learned a lesson. It can also be based on a milestone or life-altering event. * It is personal narrative. The writer tells the story by including dialogue, imagery, characterization, conflict, plot, and setting. * It is written in the first person. (â€Å"I† point-of-view) * It is an autobiographical story in which the writer describes an incident that resulted in some personal growth or development. * A personal essay is a glimpse of the writer’s life. The writer describes the personal experience using the scene-building technique, weaves a theme throughout the narrative, and makes an important point. There must be a lesson or meaning. The writer cannot just write an interesting story. * It does not have to be objective. However, the writer must express his/her feelings, thoughts, and emotions. * The writer uses self-disclosure and is honest with his/her readers. * The writer writes about a real life experience. The incident or experience must have occurred. The writer must use fact and truth. * The writer must dramatize the story by using the scene building technique. A scene includes setting/location, intimate details, concrete and specific descriptions, action, and often dialogue. * The Personal Essay as a Personal Opinion A personal essay can also be an opinion piece, an opinion that is based on a particular political or social concern or topic of interest. In this type of personal essay, the writer can states the problem, provide solutions, and then write a conclusion—which must state an important point. Whatever the writer discusses, the topic is of interest to the writer. The writer frequently seeks to explain the truth or reality has he/she views it. Sometimes the writer ponders a question. Other times the writer explores a topic from his own perspective. The writer must not lecture, sermonize, or moralize. In other words, the writer must present his/her opinion in such a way that allows the readers decide for themselves. In Writing Life Stories, author Bill Roorbach provides an excellent definition of the personal essay, one that is based on a personal opinion. He states that the personal essay that is based on a personal opinion has these attributes: * A personal essay is a conversation with your readers. * The personal essay is an informed mixture of storytelling, facts, wisdom, and personality. The personal essay examines a subject outside of yourself, but through the lens of self. * The subject of the personal essay may be the self, but the self is treated as evidence for the argument. * Passages of narrative often appear but generally get used as evidence in the inductive argument. * The personal essay strives to say what is evident, and to come to a conclusion th at the reader may agree or disagree. * A personal essay can wonder through its subject, circle around it, get the long view and the short, always providing experience, knowledge, book learning, and personal history. It should also be noted that a personal essay doesn’t need to be objective. It can be purely subjective. You don’t have to prove a point or show both sides of the argument. But you must express your own personal feelings, thoughts, and opinions on a topic or issue in a logical manner. * Subject for the Personal Essay Your subject can be about anything that you are passionate about. You can write about a â€Å"turning point† in your life, or a milestone, or adversity, such as death, illness, divorce. The subject you choose must have provided you with significant personal meaning or a lesson that you have learned. But, keep in mind, you are not just reflecting or remembering, you are going to make a point, some universal truth that your readers can appreciate. Otherwise, your story is just a story. So, write about the following: * Personal experience * Incident * Anecdote * Topic * Issue * A memory Your subject can also be a personal opinion on an issue or concern that is important to you, such as the garbage strike, crime, or unemployment. C. THE ELEMENTS OF THE SHORT STORY 1. PLOT The term short story is a relatively recent one. For example, Nathaniel Hawthorne 1837 collection of stories was titled Twice Told Tales. Today, the term tale suggests a simple narrative, told in chronological order. In the past, a short work was sometimes called a sketch. Today, sketch implies the narration of only single brief scene. Plot has been defined as â€Å"an author’s careful arrangement of incidents in a narrative to achieve a desired effect. The description of plot structure demonstrates how authors develop their stories: the discussion of techniques reveals how authors vary the chronology, provide hints of future action, sustain interest, and introduce the idea of chance or fate in the character’s lives. CAUSALITY A plot is a series of actions, often presented in chronological order, but the ingredient a plot has that a story lacks is causality. In a narrative with a plot, there is little that happens without a cause. * CONFLICT Even with the addition of causality, however, the concert ticket anecdote lacks another important ingredient. Traditionally, plots grow out of a conflict- an interna l or an external struggle between the main character and an opposing force. When a story includes internal conflict, the main character is in conflict with himself or herself. In contrast, an external conflict can occur between the central character and either another character, society, or natural source, including fate. The most common external force is another character. * PLOT STRUCTURE In literature, exposition refers to the explanatory information a reader needs to comprehend the situation in the story. Exposition establishes the setting, the major characters and some minor ones, the situation, and any necessary background information about what happened before the story began. The initiating incident is the event that changes the situation established in the exposition and sets the conflict in motion. The rising action, various episodes occur that develop complicate. In the rising action, various episodes occur that develop, complicate, or intensify the conflict. Climax has been defined in a number of ways: the point of greatest conflict, the emotional high point, the turning point in the plot, or the point at which one of the opposing forces gains the advantage. The events that follow the climax are known as the falling action. The falling action leads into the resolution or denouement of the story. The term resolution sometimes refers to all the events that follow the climax, including the denouement. . SETTING In the days of King Alfred there lived a poor woman, whose cottage was in a remote country village, many miles from London. Thus begins the old nursery tale â€Å"Jack and the Beanstalk. † The sentence describes the setting of the tale-that is, the time (in the days of King Alfred) and the place (a cottage in a remote country village far from London). Setting is so important that some readers base their literary likes and dislikes largely on the environment in a work-the future, early Rome, the English countryside, Los Angeles in the thirties, Detroit today, Cairo yesterday. ASPECTS OF SETTING Setting can be general (a city in the Midwest in the late nineteenth century), a specific (a three-story mansion on Pine street in Chicago in 1885), or very detailed (the darkened parlour of that mansion at four o’clock on the first Tuesday in December). Setting usually functions as more than a backdrop for a story, however. * PURPOSES OF SETTING Setting may serve a number of purposes, such as influencing action, defining character, and contributing to mood. 3. CHARACTER As a literary term, a character is a person created from a work or fiction. CLASSIFYING CHARACTER In some cases, characters are veiled, autobiographical versions of the author. Often, they are people the author knows or people the author has observed or overheard. While the origi n of a character is usually irrelevant, a character’s dimensionality and purpose in the story are important. 1. ) Round and Flat Character Round character is three dimensional character complexes enough to be able to surprise the reader without losing credibility. In contrast, a flat character is one whom Forster deems incapable of surprising the reader. ) Major and Minor Characters The term protagonist refers to the main or central character in fiction. Protagonist is an ancient Greek word for the central character of a drama. Rather, a more neutral and accurate word to describe the protagonist’s opponent is antagonist. Like protagonist, many antagonists will also be round characters, though it is possible for an antagonist to be flat character. Together, the protagonists and antagonists comprise the major characters. Characters other than major characters are classified as minor characters. A stereotyped character represents a category of people. The word stereotype comes from printing and refers to a metal mold used to mass produce duplicates of printing type. A final character category of character might be termed the piece of furniture character. 3. ) Active and Static Characters Another way to classifying characters is to label them as active (or dynamic) or static. An active character is one who changes because of what happens in the plot. Static characters, however, remain unchanged; their character is the same at the end of the story as at the beginning. . POINT OF VIEW AND TONE Point of view is the vantage point from which an author tells a story. There are two main points of view : first person ( I ) and third person ( he, she , they ) , but there are variations within these point of view. a. ) First Person (I) The â€Å"I† narrator is not the author. Instead, the author creates a persona or mask through which he or she tells the story. The â€Å"I† story may be a character in the story. IF there’s no â€Å"I’s,† the story is probably told from the third person point of view. b. ) Third Person The Third person point of view may be omniscient (in literally means â€Å"all knowing†): that is, may reveal the thoughts of all or most of the characters. In contrast, limited omniscient point of view focuses on the thoughts of a single character. One type of limited omniscience is the objective point of view, in which the author makes no commentary but records only those details that can be seen and heard, rather as a newspaper reporter does. Long works of fiction are often told from several points of view, but short stories are commonly presented from a single point of view. B. Tone Tone in writing is somewhat like tone of voice in speech. Tone in writing is the author’s attitude towards the characters, the topic, or the readers, as expressed by the narrator, and it may come across in number of ways Tone in writing can be, among other thing, serious, introspective, satirical, sad, ironic, playful, condescending, formal and informal. Tone is achieved through descriptive details of setting and character, through dialogue, and through the narrator, direct comment and author tone is necessarily the same throughout a work, although in a short story, the same tone is usually maintained throughout. . Tone and Mood The terms tone and mood are sometimes confused. While tone conveys the author’s attitude, mood refers to the atmosphere in a story. Atmosphere may be mysterious, horror-filled, or serene. While both the tone and the mood of a story maybe the same (both may be sad, for example), it is usually common to distinguished between these to terms. Also, the mood of a story is not necessarily the same throughout. The climax may bring about a change from despair to triumph, or from anxiety to relief or from any mood another. b. Determining Tone One way of determining the tone of the story his to decide what effect the story has on you. For example, if the author seems sympathetic or hostile to a character, you likely will be to. If the authors tone seems aloof, you may fill a corresponding aloofness. If the author tone is lightly satirical, the effect is likely to be amusement or a sense that the author satire is well aimed. 5. THEME Theme is an author’s insight or general observation about human nature or the human condition that is conveyed through characters, plot, and imagery. If you examine carefully these two quotations expressing theme, you should deduce two important clues to the nature of a theme statement: first, it is presented in a complete sentence, and second, its contents is debatable. a. Particularity and Universality Particullary refers to the uniqueness or singularity of a work of fiction. Universality, on the other hand, refers to the relevance or applicability of a fictional work to large groups of people across time and place. b. The roots of theme c. Locating theme Just focus first on elements of each story as you read. Examine those elements closely, rereading as needed. From the factual details of plot (especially conflict), character, and setting (especially imagery), clues to the author’s debatable opinion will emerge. d. Formulating a theme statement 1. Expressing theme as multiple statements. 2. Avoiding excessive theme statement. 6. STYLE Style is a writer’s characteristic way of saying things. It is a product of both the character of the writer as an individual and the choices that he or she makes concerning diction , imagery, syntax and variety, and organizational structure. . Diction Diction refers to a writer’s choice of words. The words chosen can be described as general or specific ( tree versus weeping willow ) ; formal or informal ( â€Å" How do you do† versus â€Å"Hello† ); abstract or concrete ( honor or brotherhood versus desk ) ; common ( drat ); jargon ( any words understood by members of a specialized group such as doctors, teachers, astronau ts ) ; Latin- based or Anglo-Saxon words ( make a hotel reservation versus book a room). Whatever the choice, the author’s dixtion needs to be both clear and appropriate. However, that in fiction the author’s diction does not need to be grammatical to be clear or appropriate. b. Imagery and symbol In literature, imagery extends to all the senses-sight, taste, smell, touch, and hearing. Imagery is also associated with figures of speech such as metaphor, personification, simile and others. A symbol is anything that signifies or stands for something else. In literature, symbol is anything concrete-an object, a place, a character, an action-that stands for suggest something abstract. c. Syntax Syntax or sentence structure is the pattern or arrangement of individual words and phrases. A writer’s style also grows out of the mixture and variety of sentence patterns used in the writing. d. Organizational structure The organizational structure of most fiction is chronological: stories typically begin with exposition that established the setting, the chief characters, and the situation, including the conflict. 7. POPULAR SECTION a. Westerns The western story is a unique genre because the American frontier was a unique setting. Full of danger, hardship, beauty and the promise of wealth (or at least one’s own plot of land), the frontier meant the opportunity to achieve the genuine independence. b. Detective and mystery A fiction that involves the unraveling of some puzzle or secret or crime is called a mystery. The classic detective story involves a police, private or amateur detective who investigates a crime and through observations, questioning, and deduction identifies the motive and the criminal from among a limited group of suspect. c. Fantasy and science fiction All fiction is imaginary, but some of it can both be set in this world or in other world as we know it. Fantasy and science fiction can both be set in this world or in other worlds anytime. Both can and often do have social and political meaning. Fantasy has elements of the supernatural or magic. Science fiction, as its name suggest, its rooted in scientific and technological truths or in the possibility of scientific advancements based on what is known. Ghost and horror are stories that scare people have been popular and profitable for a long time. References 1. Jane Bachman Gordon and Karen Kuehner, Fiction : The Elements of Fiction ( United States of America :1999 . PREFACE Alhamdulillahirobbilamin Gratitude belongs only to Almighty God, who has given his affection and the author for taking the time to complete the Introduction to Literature paper under the title â€Å" Fiction or Prose as Literary Genre â€Å". The authors also thank for several people who have helped in the completion of this paper. Papers on â€Å"Fiction or Prose as a Literary Genre† was filled to fulfill one presentation task Introduction to Literature course. Writing this paper aims to provide further information about the literature as an esthetic and study and the challenges to be faced in the future. This paper was presented several efforts that can be done to maintain the Introduction to Literature. The authors are aware that this paper is still far from perfect. Therefore, the authors expect criticism and suggestions either in writing or orally from the lecturer of Introduction to Literature course DR. Alek ,M. Pd so writers can develop science , especially the science of Introduction to Literature. How to cite The Definition of Prose, Essay examples

Principles of Drug Actions for Health- myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Write about thePrinciples of Drug Actions for Health. Answer: Introduction The drug chosen for the purposes of this task is atropine which is a member of the class anticholinergic. The chemical name is Tropine topate/DI-Hyoscyamine/DI-Tropyltropate and is an alkaloid derived from Atropa belladonna but can as well be found in other plants. Its generic name is Atropine sulfate while the trade name is Isopto Atropine or Atropa. Atropine lowers the vagal tone hence resulting in a positive chronotropic effect. It also increases the conduction of AV. Atropine bronchodilates through the mechanism of parasympatholytic (Bhattacharya, 2012). It acts as a competitive antagonist at muscarinic receptors. All these actions of atropine make it sufficiently relevant to the topic Principles of Drug Actions for Professional Health Practice. The above actions are some of the medical conditions that a paramedic may be asked to attend to before a patient is taken for further medical health care in the hospital(Brophy, 2010). Source Atropine is found naturally in plants which are members of the Solanaceae family. It is commonly found in Datura innoxia, D. stramonium, D. metel besides Atropa belladonna which is a poisonous nightshade plant in addition to hysocyamine. Atropa belladonna is a plant characterized by brown-purple flowers and whose berries change from red to purple with the progress of summer. Additional sources of the plant are inclusive of the members of Hyoscyamus and Brugmansia genera(Papich, 2009). The plant should not be confused with Solanum dulcamara as well has flowers containing purple petals and with a yellow center. Solanum dulcamara is less toxic woody bittersweet or nightshade. Synthetically, the drug can be obtained by the reaction of tropic acid with tropine and the reaction should be done in the presence of hydrochloric acid. Body system(s) upon which it works Atropine works on the various organs of the body including heart, eyes and secretory glands. It serves as a cycloplegic that temporarily disrupts the accommodation reflex as well as a mydriatic that dilates the pupil of the eye. It is therefore used in lowering the progression of myopia, especially in children. Atropine injections are used in the treatment of bradycardia i.e. heart rate that is less than 60 beats per minute(Coyne, 2015). It is as well used in the prevention of low heart rate of children during intubation. It is used in the treatment of third-degree heart block and second-degree heart break. In the salivary and mucus glands, the drug is used in inhibiting seating through the sympathetic nervous system(Papich, 2009). This is important in the treatment of hyperhidrosis thus prevention of death rattle in dying patients. Mechanism of action Atropine has two main modes of actions: therapeutic action and activity of the central nervous system(Schwartz-Bloom, 2014). Therapeutic action is where there is inhibition of the glands and the smooth cells by the postganglionic cholinergic nerves. Atropine acts by counter the activities that are controlled by the parasympathetic nervous system. It is able to successfully achieve this due to its competitive nature and the reversibility of the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. It is a competitive antagonist of the receptor types M1, M2, M3, M4 and M5 thereby classified as an anticholinergic drug. In the cardiac system, atropine works as muscarinic acetyl cholinergic antagonist who is non-selective and increases the conduction via the atrioventricular node and firing of the Sino-atrial node of the heart. It reduces the secretions of the bronchus as well as blocking the sites of acetylcholine receptors. Atropine works by inhibiting the activities of acetylcholine(Gyermek, 2010). When introduced to the cells of the heart, atropine blocks the cells from activation by acetylcholine which is released from the vagus nerve. In this regard, atropine helps in inhibiting the effects of overstimulation of vagus thereby counteracting abnormal slow heart rate. For the case of the eye, atropine blocks the contraction of the circular sphincter muscles of the pupil by introducing mydriasis which is a stimulation by the release of acetylcholine. In so doing it allows the radial dilator muscles of the pupil to contract and distend. Through the introduction of cycloplegia, atropine makes the ciliary muscles powerless and functionless. This move lowers accommodation for allowing for accuracy in refraction among children hence assists in relieving pain which is usually associated with iridocyclitis(Young, 2014). Route of administration and drug schedule The most common routes of administration of atropine include oral, injection, ophthalmic and endotracheal administrations. Endotracheal administration is usually associated with blood drug concentrations which are lower than IV administration. This administration route is usually discouraged since it is not reliable. Oral administration is usually administered 30 minutes before a meal. Injectable administration is done either intraosseously, intravenously, subcutaneously or intramuscularly(Brophy, 2010). Care should be taken when the administration is done subcutaneously so as to ensure the injection is not dome intradermally. Intramuscular administration should be done only be trained and qualified personnel that have recognition in the treatment of nerve agent. Target population for atropine The target population of this drug is the children. It is the children that experience major challenges associated with progressive myopia. The drug has proved effective in inhibiting myopia progression hence very relevant to this demographic composition. Effectiveness of Atropine Atropine has proved effective when it comes to intervening myopia. Study and research have revealed that atropine inhibits the effects of lens-deprived and induced myopia in animals. A study dubbed ATOM study revealed that atropine is an effective drug in the treatment of progression of myopia among children in the Asian community(Bhattacharya, 2012). From the study which was conducted in two years, it was revealed that up to 75% of myopic progression reduction was related to atropine and 1% of these cases did not report any concerning side effects. This is the treatment that is prescribed for almost half of the children of Taiwan who are suffering from progressive myopia. Conclusion Atropine is a very effective drug that is useful in the treatment of the various diseases and complications of the conditions of the body. The drug is important to the various organs of the body including the eyes, heart and the nervous system. It should be considered as a treatment option for children who have a high prevalence rate of myopia any part of the globe. References Beck, R. K. (2014). Drug Reference for EMS Providers. London: Cengage Learning. Bhattacharya. (2012). Pharmacology, 2/e. Toronto: Elsevier India. Brophy, K. M. (2010). Clinical Drug Therapy for Canadian Practice. New Delhi: Lippincott Williams Wilkins. Coyne, C. (2015). Comparative Diagnostic Pharmacology: Clinical and Research Applications in Living-System Models. Mississipi: John Wiley Sons. Gyermek, L. (2010). Pharmacology of Antimuscarinic Agents. London: CRC Press. Papich, M. G. (2009). Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. New York: John Wiley Sons. Schwartz-Bloom, R. D. (2014). Pharmacology: Drug Actions and Reactions. New York: CRC Press. Young, D. A. (2014). Handbook of Critical Incidents and Essential Topics in Pediatric Anesthesiology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

His Fathers Earth Essay Example

His Fathers Earth Essay John Moxley Mrs. Minton LNG 332 11 February 2010 Dreaming Before Succeeding At the age of four, Michael Jackson already knew he wanted to become a singer. Although Jackson did not know how he was going to achieve his goal, Jackson had the American dream on his side. In the short story, â€Å"His Father’s Earth† by Thomas Clayton Wolfe, Wolfe demonstrates how people have to dream before they can succeed through the main character. The main character is a young male, who in the story daydreams about joining the circus of the 1920s to achieve his goals of wealth and success (Wolfe). Wolfe exhibits how people have to believe in their dreams before they can succeed through the definition of the 1920s American dream, â€Å"His Father’s Earth,† and Wolfe’s own personal life. Wolfe published â€Å"His Father’s Earth† in 1925 during the roaring twenties. After World War I, America reinvented itself by the prohibition of alcohol. The prohibition of alcohol came into affect by the eighteenth amendment; the majority of Americans believed alcohol was destroying families and American values (Seth). The American dream of the 1920s was established upon organized crime like bootlegging. This fast money way of becoming rich was the norm of the 1920s (Seth). Like bootleggers, the main character in â€Å"His Father’s Earth, dreams about achieving wealth no matter how he has to do it. The majority of Americans during the 1920s would not think about using organized crime or joining the circus to become wealthy. Both the bootleggers and the young man used their dreams of wealth and success to rise above and obtain what they longed for (Wolfe). New money Americans put their social standards away to reach the unreachable. The American dream of the 1920s was an ideal goal that everyone hoped for and very few reached. We will write a custom essay sample on His Fathers Earth specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on His Fathers Earth specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on His Fathers Earth specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The dream changed from becoming a lawyer or a doctor, to being a gangster or a circus worker to achieve wealth and success. (Daniel). The circus of the 1920s was usually the most exciting event of small towns and cities. The circus began with a parade- colorfully dressed band members, a calliope piping its steam-whistle notes, wild animals roaring in rolling cages, elephants lumbering along in single file, and a wild array of clowns, acrobats and jugglers (Far and the Near). â€Å"His Father’s Earth† is a short story of a young male who in the story daydreams about running away and joining the profound circus (Wolfe). Numerous young Americans of the 1920s fantasized about running away to join the circus; it was the embodiment of fantasy and adventure (Far and the Near). The boy imagined himself joining the circus to sell tickets, put up posters, and barter with farmers for fresh food. Wolfe writes about the boy’s daydream to show that success does not come first without a dream (Wolfe). At the end of the story, Wolfe allows the reader to make a hypothesis that boy follows his dream of the circus, which would lead him to a successful American life. Thomas Wolfe was born in the smoky mountaintops of Ashville, North Carolina. Wolfe’s large family was not the wealthiest; he was very self-conscious of his family’s wealth, which made him an incredibly studious worker (Seth). At the age of sixteen, Wolfe entered the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill through a scholarship to study literature. Wolfe’s vision was to become a successful playwright and an author (â€Å"Wolfe†). Wolfe’s first completed work was â€Å"Look Homeward, Angel† in 1928; the first draft filled up a suitcase of papers. After several publishers rejected his work and years of dreaming that his day would come, Wolfe finally got his first book published. Wolfe published a very small number of books before his sudden death in 1938. Wolfe died at thirty-eight years old, but before his death, Wolfe left many manuscripts that would later be published (Daniel). Thomas Wolfe’s life exhibits how an ordinary person can achieve his dreams no matter how rich or poor he is. Even though Wolfe died at an early age, Wolfe achieved his goals of being a playwright and an author through hard work. Thomas Wolfe demonstrates that success does not come before failure and that a person has to believe in his dream before he can succeed. Wolfe exhibits this idea through the definition of the 1920s American dream, His Father’s Earth, and Wolfe’s own personal life. Although Wolfe did not acclaim wealth or fame before his death, Wolfe placed his beliefs in the American society for eternity. Works Cited Benson, Frederick R. Wolfe, Thomas Clayton (1900-1938). Encyclopedia of World Biography. Ed. Suzanne M. Bourgoin. 2nd ed. Detroit: Gale Research, 1998. 17 vols. Discovering Collection. Gale. Web. 22 January 2010. Seth, John. â€Å"Thomas Clayton Wolfe. † 2005. Web. 20 January 2010. Daniel, Katyhleen, Richard, Sime, and Patricia McCambridge, eds. Elements of Literature. 5th ed. Austin: Holt-Rinehart-Winston, 1997. Print. â€Å"The Far and the Near. † Short Stories for Students. Vol. 18. Farmington Hills: Thomson Gale, 2003. 78-79. Print. Wolfe, Thomas (Clayton) (1900-1938). DISCovering Authors. Online ed. Detroit: Gale, 2003. Discovering Collection. Gale. Web. 20 January 2010. Wolfe, Thomas. â€Å"His Father’s Earth. † 1925. PDF File.

CSS Alabama - Civil War - Confederate Raider

CSS Alabama - Civil War - Confederate Raider Nation: Confederate States of AmericaType: Screw SteamerShipyard: John Laird Sons, BirkenheadLaid Down: 1862Launched: July 29, 1862Commissioned: August 24, 1862Fate: Sunk, June 19, 1864 CSS Alabama - Specifications Displacement: 1,050 tonsLength: 220 ft.Beam: 31 ft., 8 ft.Draft: 17 ft., 8 in.Speed: 13 knotsComplement: 145 men CSS Alabama - Armament Guns 6 x 32 lb. guns, 1 x 100 lb. Blakeley Rifle, 1 x 8 in. gun CSS Alabama - Construction Operating in England, Confederate agent James Bulloch was tasked with establishing contacts and finding vessels for the fledgling Confederate Navy. Establishing a relationship with Fraser, Trenholm Company, a respected shipping company, to facilitate the sale of Southern cotton, he was later able to use the firm as a front for his naval activities. As the British government remained officially neutral in the American Civil War, Bulloch was unable to purchase ships outright for military use. Working through Fraser, Trenholm Company, he was able to contract for the construction of a screw sloop at the yard of John Laird Sons Company in Birkenhead. Laid down in 1862, the new hull was designated #290 and launched on July 29, 1862. Initially named Enrica, the new ship was powered by a direct-acting, horizontal condensing steam engine with twin horizontal cylinders which powered a retractable propeller. In addition, Enrica was rigged as a three-masted barque and was capable of employing a large spread of canvas. As Enrica completed fitting out, Bulloch hired a civilian crew to sail the new vessel to Terceira in the Azores. Reaching the island, the ship was soon met by its new commander, Captain Raphael Semmes, and the supply vessel Agrippina which was carrying guns for Enrica. After Semmes arrival, work began to convert Enrica into a commerce raider. Over the next few days, sailors endeavored to mount the heavy guns which included six 32-pdr smoothbores as well as a 100-pdr Blakely Rifle and an 8-in. smoothbore. The latter two guns were placed on pivot mounts along the ships centerline. With the conversion complete, the ships moved into international waters off Terceira where Semmes officially commissioned the s hip into the Confederate Navy as CSS Alabama on August 24. CSS Alabama - Early Successes Though Semmes had sufficient officers to oversee the running of Alabama, he had no sailors. Addressing the crews of the attending ships, he offered them signing money, lucrative bonuses, as well as prize money if they signed on for a cruise of unknown length. Semmes efforts proved successful, and he was able to convince eighty-three sailors to join his ship. Electing to remain in the eastern Atlantic, Semmes departed Terceira and began stalking Union whaling ships in the area. On September 5, Alabama scored its first victim when it captured the whaler Ocumlgee in the western Azores. Burning the whaler the following morning, Alabama continued its operations with great success. Over the next two weeks, the raider destroyed a total of ten Union merchant ships, mostly whalers, and inflicted around $230,000 in damage. Turning west, Semmes sailed for the East Coast. After encountering poor weather en route, Alabama made its next captures on October 3 when it took the merchant ships Emily Farnum and Brilliant. While the former was released, the latter was burned. Over the next month, Semmes successfully took eleven more Union merchant ships as Alabama moved south along the coast. Of these, all were burned but two which were bonded and sent to port loaded with crewmen and civilians from Alabamas conquests. Though Semmes desired to raid New York Harbor, a lack of coal forced him to abandon this plan. Turning south, Semmes steamed for Martinique with the goal of meeting Agrippina and resupplying. Reaching the island, he learned that Union ships were aware of his presence. Sending the supply ship to Venezuela, Alabama was later forced slip past USS San Jacinto (6 guns) to escape. Re-coaling, Semmes sailed for Texas with the hope of frustrating Union operations off Galveston, TX. CSS Alabama - Defeat of USS Hatteras After pausing at Yucatan to conduct maintenance on Alabama, Semmes reached the vicinity of Galveston on January 11, 1863. Spotting the Union blockading force, Alabama was seen and approached by USS Hatteras (5). Turning to flee like a blockade runner, Semmes lured Hatteras away from its consorts before turning to attack. Closing on the Union sidewheeler, Alabama opened fire with its starboard broadside and in a quick thirteen-minute battle forced Hatteras to surrender. With the Union ship sinking, Semmes took the crew aboard and departed the area. Landing and paroling the Union prisoners, he turned south and made for Brazil. Operating along the coast of South America through late July, Alabama enjoyed a successful spell that saw it capture twenty-nine Union merchant ships. CSS Alabama - Indian Pacific Oceans In need of refit and with Union warships searching for him, Semmes sailed for Cape Town, South Africa. Arriving, Alabama spent part of August undergoing a badly-needed overhaul. While there, he commissioned one of his prizes, the bark Conrad, as CSS Tuscaloosa (2). While operating off South Africa, Semmes learned of the arrival of the powerful USS Vanderbilt (15) at Cape Town. After making two captures on September 17, Alabama turned east into the Indian Ocean. Passing through the Sunda Strait, the Confederate raider eluded USS Wyoming (6) before making three quick captures in early November. Finding hunting sparse, Semmes moved along the north coast of Borneo before overhauling his ship at Candore. Seeing little reason to remain in the area, Alabama turned west and arrived at Singapore on December 22. CSS Alabama - Difficult Circumstances Receiving a cool reception from British authorities in Singapore, Semmes soon departed. Despite Semmes best efforts, Alabama was in increasingly poor condition and badly needed dockyard refit. In addition, crew morale was low due to poor hunting in eastern waters. Understanding that these issues could only be resolved in Europe, he moved through the Straits of Malacca with the intention of reaching Britain or France. While in the straits, Alabama made three captures. The first of these, Martaban (formerly Texas Star) possessed British papers but had changed from American ownership only two weeks earlier. When Martabans captain failed to produce a sworn certificate stating that the papers were authentic, Semmes burned the ship. This action incensed the British and would ultimately force Semmes to sail for France. Re-crossing the Indian Ocean, Alabama departed Cape Town on March 25, 1864. Finding little in the way of Union shipping, Alabama made its final two captures in late April in the form of Rockingham and Tycoon. Though additional ships were sighted, the raiders fouled bottom and aging machinery allowed the potential prey to out-run the once-swift Alabama. Reaching Cherbourg on June 11, Semmes entered the harbor. This proved a poor choice as the only dry docks in the city belonged to the French Navy whereas La Havre possessed privately-owned facilities. Requesting use of the dry docks, Semmes was informed that it required the permission of Emperor Napoleon III who was on vacation. The situation was made worse by the fact that the Union ambassador in Paris immediately alerted all Union naval vessels in Europe as to Alabamas location. CSS Alabama - The Final Fight Among those who received word was Captain John A. Winslow of USS (7). Having been banished to a European command by Secretary of Navy Gideon Welles for making critical comments after the 1862 Second Battle of Manassas, Winslow quickly got his ship underway from the Scheldt and steamed south. Reaching Cherbourg on June 14, he entered the harbor and circled the Confederate ship before departing. Careful to respect French territorial waters, Winslow began patrolling outside of the harbor to prevent the raiders escape as well as prepared Kearsarge for battle by tricing chain cable over the vital areas of the ships sides. Unable to secure permission to use the dry docks, Semmes faced a difficult choice. The longer he remained in port, the greater the Union opposition would likely become and the chances increased that the French would prevent his departure. As a result, after issuing a challenge to Winslow, Semmes emerged with his ship on June 19. Escorted by the French ironclad frigate Couronne and the British yacht Deerhound, Semmes approached the limit of French territorial waters. Battered from its long cruise and with its store of powder in poor condition, Alabama entered the battle at a disadvantage. As the two vessels neared, Semmes opened fire first, while Winslow held Kearsarges guns until the ships were only 1,000 yards apart. As the fight continued, both ships sailed on circular courses seeking to gain an advantage over the other. Though Alabama hit the Union vessel several times, the poor condition of its powder showed as several shells, including one that hit Kearsarges sternpost, failed to detonate. Kearsarge faired better as its rounds hit with telling effect. An hour after the battle began, Kearsarges guns had reduced the Confederacys greatest raider to a burning wreck. With his ship sinking, Semmes struck his colors and requested help. Sending boats, Kearsarge managed to rescue much of Alabamas crew, though Semmes was able to escape aboard Deerhound. CSS Alabama - Aftermath The Confederacys top performing commerce raider, Alabama claimed sixty-five prizes which were valued at a total of $6 million. Hugely successful in disrupting Union commerce and inflating insurance rates, Alabamas cruise led to the use of additional raiders such as CSS Shenandoah. As many Confederate raiders, such as Alabama, CSS Florida, and Shenandoah, had been built in Britain with the British governments knowledge that the ships were destined for the Confederacy, the US Government pursued monetary damages after the war. Known as the Alabama Claims, the issue caused a diplomatic crisis that was finally resolved by the formation of a twelve-man committee which ultimately awarded damages of $15.5 million in 1872. Selected Sources CSS Alabama AssociationURI: CSS Alabama

Evaluation of a workplace learning environment(school) Essay

Evaluation of a workplace learning environment(school) - Essay Example Given this acknowledgement of the importance of workplace learning, I proceed by investigating the utility of learning theories in identifying barriers to such learning. Workplace learning has been defined as â€Å"learning or training undertaken in the workplace, usually on the job, including on-the-job training under normal operational conditions, and onsite training, which is conducted away from the work process (e.g. in a training room† (Australian National Training Authority, online). It critical to undertake workplace learning since it accords the key competencies needed by the school to stay competitive. How is a workplace ideal for learning envisioned? Smith & Hayton (1999, p. 252) puts forth that the school’s openness to change is a critical factor in the progress of training and development. They have also stated that there are external and moderating variables that influence training levels. The interplay among these factors is the key determinant to the kind of training which shall be prioritized by the firm (Ridoutt et al., 2002, p. 14). Moreover, it has also been presented that smaller-sized schools were more involved in informal training compared to larger ones. There are several drivers that affect and push training within any school, as follows: Approaches: Having pointed out this distinction, it may be worthwhile for me to delve more lengthily on learning processes which may be more applicable to the work setting, including action learning, situated learning, and incidental learning. Action learning is defined as a systematic way through which learning transpires by application of theory or by doing. It is anchored on the assumption that learning necessitates action and that this in turn needs input from learning. Learning per se is the expected result of action learning, and it does not intend to focus on the resolution of a problem (Lewis & Williams, 1994, p. 12). Brown et al (1988)

Transcending the Compulsion beyond the Counter Essay

Transcending the Compulsion beyond the Counter - Essay Example Its history and the way fast food chain of restaurants centering the military base since World War II metamorphosed a sleepy and quiet town into one of the most developed and busy townships of United States. With the sprawling employment, more and more interface of the teenagers was noticed in the fast food industry. Behind the Counter examines the effect of the involvement of the teenage folks readily into the growing fast food industry and its effect on the socio-cultural and socio-economic aspects of American society. Behind the Counter from Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal examines the effect of the â€Å"part-time† jobs and the involvement of the teenagers in the fast food industry. This essay intends to explore and examine the effect of the continuing legacy of the contemporary society of America as well. Behind the Counter is a very important and effective chapter that enables the readers to understand the subtleties and intricate relationships b etween economy, culture, and society. No one can ignore the tremendous power of economy on the development of culture and society and American society is not an exception in this regard. In this chapter, tracing the development and inception of a city which flourished holding the hands of the fast-food chain of restaurants examines how the teens are predominantly converted into the workforce that kept the fast food industry alive. Focusing on the working conditions of these teens, Schlosser also draws attention on the way these part-time jobs into the counters of the fast-food centers interfere in their education and explains the adverse effects of their spending of money.

Cause & Effect Essay over Crisis in America's Social Security System

Cause & Effect over Crisis in America's Social Security System - Essay Example The situation facing the social security is pretty clear. It has enough income to last for about thirty years, and it does not seem that it will be running out anytime soon. The program was created to provide benefits to the retired and old age people, and the benefits were said to rise with the growing increase in wages of the people. The fact that the economy is producing more than enough funds to offer an increasing standard of living for the future generations, while also honoring its commitment to the Social Security, comes as a shock to some people. As a matter of fact, the only threat that the social security is facing is from the politicians who are trying to ‘alter’ the system and bring drastic changes by faking a crisis. (The introduction to The changes that Bush wanted to bring would have actually put the Social Security System in crisis. His privatization plan would have half ruled half of the Social Security funds into private accounts. This would have made the Social Security dependent on the Trust Funds, which would have emptied the Trust Funds twenty years sooner, and as a result payments to the people would have reduced by seventy percent. This would have created a real crisis. The Social Security Trust Fund has been in operation for about seventy years. There was a much worse crisis in 1983. The Trust Fund was about to drain then, but the problem as brought under control, and it worked for over fifty years. The Social Security system has been altered a few times, to keep it stable. Even if the government just sits idle and does nothing, then the Trust Fund is said to run out in 2035. But even then the Social Security would not be broke. So the so called crisis said to have occurred, is not much of a threat. The Social Security is well established and is said to run effectively for the next many years. If it is threatened by anything, it is the ‘reforms’ of the politicians and their attacks on then system. Their

Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) Analysis

Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) Analysis Overview Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the next generation of protocol defined by InternetEngineering Task force (IETF) to replace the exiting IPv4 protocol. At present, the majority of Internet users are still using IPv4 protocol, and given that most of current networking applications and network equipment run in IPv4 environments, the migration from IPv4 to IPv6 cant be accomplished overnight. It is predictable that the migration will be a long-term process (it is forecasted that the process will take 10 20 years). During the migration, IPv4 and IPv6 will coexist in a same network. This migration process poses new challenges on the routers that are the core equipment in IP network. Traditional routers cant accommodate new future network with IPv4/v6 coexistence. The routers must be improved and upgraded so that they can support both IPv4 and IPv6.Given that the core router is very important and carries huge Internet traffics, it must be able to support IPv6 forwarding at wire rate. It means ASIC chip, but not software is used to support IPv6 packet processing. At the same time, it is very important that this support cant sacrifice any IPv4 performance. After all, most of current traffics is IPv4. The core router must expand to support IPv6 routing tables and needs to support IPv6 routing protocols, such as BGP4+, OSPFv3, ISISv6, RIPng and etc. It needs to support some migration strategy from IPv4 to IPv6, such as Tunnel, Dual Stack, Translation and etc. Same as many network technologies, successful deployment of IPv6 relies on the deployment of the operators IPv6 network. As one core component in IPv6 network, IPv6 core router is key to network building, applications, performance and stability. At present, mainstream router vendors like Cisco and Juniper announce that their routers can support IPv6 while some traditional IT equipment manufactures, especially those in Japan, think Internet upgrade caused by IPv6 will change the whole landscape of router market, which brings significant opportunities for them to enter router market. From 2000 to 2002, Hitachi, NEC and Fujitsu announced IPv6-capable core router to gain some market share in new Internet network. It must be admitted that IPv6 is still in the initial phase at present, which is reflected in the following aspects: most IPv6 network is in trial phase, the number of access users is low, carried IPv6 traffics cant be comparable to IPv4, the interoperability between IPv6 equipment still needs to be proved, and network engineers lack in experience in large-scale deployment and operation of IPv6 network. The lack of data and experience is one of important causes that make some operators lack in confidence in IPv6 network deployment. Many operators take wait-and-see attitudes. In order to prove IPv6 router (especially IPv6 core router), the support to IPv6, how are they performed and interoperated, provide a practical data basis for the operators to deploy IPv6 network and provide a reference for equipment manufactures to evaluate and improve their equipment, BII(Beijing Internet Institute) collaborate with 6TNet (IPv6 Telecom Trial Network) in China tested IPv6 core routers from 4 ven dors (Fujitsu, Hitachi, Juniper and NEC) in Beijing from October to December 2002. BII performed protocol conformance, performance and  interoperability tests. In these tests, we used the test instruments provided by Agilent and received strong technical support from Agilent. The test is not a comparative performance test in different router vendors. The purpose is to verify the feasibility of IPv6 deployment. With this test, the test team thinks that all SUT (system under test) has the ability to support commercial IPv6 network and provide basic IPv6 capabilities. They can support IPv6 routing protocols, support the forwarding of IPv6 datagram at wire rate and provide interoperability between them. From perspectives of pure technology, the test team thinks the products have been ready to deploy basic IPv6 core network.. Brief Descriptions of Test The requirements for hardware provided by the SUT (system under test) are as follows: IPv6-capable core router OC48 SM ports (both ports must be in different boards) Supports both FE ports and GE ports. The number of FE ports and GE ports is no less than 3 Finally, all vendors basically meet those requirements, although CX5210 provided by NEC doesnt support FE during the time of testing. The requirement for IPv6 capabilities provided by the SUT (system under test) include: support of IPv6 forwarding in hardware and support of related IPv6 routing protocols and migration strategy. Finally, all vendors meet our requirements as shown in the following table. Company IPv6 hardwareDual Stack RIPng OSPFv3 BGP4+ IPv6 over IPv4 forwarding Tunnel Fujitsu 9 9 9 9 9 9 Hitachi 9 9 9 9 9 9 Juniper 9 9 9 9 9 9 NEC 9 9 9 9 9 9 The SUT (system under test) models and OS versions are shown in the following table. Company Model Version Fujitsu Geostream R920 E10V02L03C44 Hitachi GR2000-20H S-9181-61 07-01 [ROUTE-OS6] Juniper M20 5.5R1.2 NEC CX5210 02.0(2e) 45.08.00 The test instruments we used in the test are as follows: Agilent Router Tester 900 Version: Router Tester 5.1,Build 11.15. Agilent QA Robot Version: Router Tester 5.3,Build 5.2 The IPv6 core router test is composed of three parts: Protocol conformance test, interoperability test and IPv6 performance test. Basic IPv6 Protocols and RIPng Basic IPv6 protocols include IPv6 Specification (RFC2460), ICMPv6 (RFC2463), Neighbor Discovery (RFC2461), Stateless Autoconfiguration (RFC2462), Path MTU Discovery (RFC1981), IPv6 address Architecture (RFC1884) and etc., which are basic capabilities provided by an IPv6 implementation. RIPng is defined by RFC2080 and is the extension and expansion of RIPv2. Its basic capabilities are same as RIPv2. The routing information exchanged by RIPng can carry IPv6 addresses and prefixes. RIPng runs on IPv6 network, uses multicasting address ff02::9 as destination to transfer routing information. RIPng is not compatible with RIPv2. RIP protocol is typically used in small networks and is not deployed in large networks because of its scalability and performance, which is same in IPv6 networks. The test does not include basic IPv6 protocols and RIPng because we think both capabilities are most basic and most preliminary capabilities that should be provided in an IPv6 router, these capabilities are implemented and interoperated very well in the routers from 4 vendors, and the 4 tested routers have been tested publicly or non-publicly several times in different occasions and provided good data. Therefore, we think it is unnecessary to make efforts to repeat these work and we skipped this test and focused on more challenged test items. BGP4+ Protocol Conformance Test At present, the external gateway protocol used in the IPv4 network is BGP4. Its basic protocols are defined in RFC1771. In order to carry IPv6 network information in BGP4 updates, IETF has defined a special property multi-protocol BGP (MP-BGP), also called IPv6 NLRI (Network Layer Reachability Information) to exchange IPv6 routing information, which is not a new version of BGP protocol, but an extension to BGP4. The extension is generally called BGP4+, which is compatible with BGP4. Refer to RFC2545 for its definition. Test Purpose and Used Standards: Purpose: To test the implementation of BGP4+ and conform with related standards for SUT (System Under Test). The following standards are referred in the test: Bates, T., Chandra, R., Katz, D. and Y. Rekhter, â€Å"Multiprotocol Extension for BGP-4†, RFC 2858, Jne 2000. Bates, T., Chandra, R., Chen, E., â€Å"BGP Route Reflection An Alternative to Full Mesh IBGP†, RFC2796, April 2000. Chandra, R. and J.Scudder, â€Å"Capabilities Advertisement with BGP-4†, RFC 2842, May 2000. Dupont, F. and P. Marques, â€Å"Use of BGP-4 Multiprotocol Extensions for IPv6 Inter-Domain Routing†, RFC 2545, March 1999. Rekhter, Y. and T. Li, â€Å"A Border Gateway Protocol 4 (BGP-4) †. Traina, P., McPherson, D., Scudder, J., â€Å"Autonomous System Confederations for BGP†, RFC3065, February 2001. Test Methods: All the tests are based on topology emulation. One test port of instrument firstly establishes network topology emulation, then executes pre-written scripts, interacts with the port of SUT, performs related BGP4+ protocol tests individually and each test generates Passed/Failed record. The tests can be divided into active tests and passive tests. Active test means the tester is used to verify the state machine of SUT and the correctness of message format while passive test means the tester is used to interfere with SUT using messages with errors. Test Topology Test instrument and SUT use two independent Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet connections. All BGP4+ runs on the Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet connections. The physical topology is as follows: The logical topology is as follows: Test Items and Descriptions of Test Results: The BGP4+ protocol conformance test involves in the BGP multi-protocol extension, setup and transfer of BGP4+ IBGP and EBGP sessions, ability to receive IPv6 route updates, BGP4+ next hop, starting point, MED, local preference, AS_PATH, atom aggregation, community name and various properties, the ability of SUT to correctly process these properties, BGP4+ route reflector capability, BGP4+ federation capability. These tests can only ensure implementation of BGP4+protocol in SUT comply with the standard defined by RFC, and cant ensure SUT fully and successfully deploy BGP4+ routes in commercial IPv6 network. The following diagram briefly describes the test results. Attached table 1 includes all test items, description and detailed results of BGP4+ conformance tests for 4 routers. The test items and descriptions are extracted from RFC2858, RFC2545, RFC2842, RFC2796, RFC3065 and draft-ietf-idr-bgp4-14.txt part. Model Failed test items Fujitsu GeoStream R920 2 Hitachi GR2000-20H 5 Juniper M20 1 NEC CX5210 3 Analysis of Test Results: Capabilities not supported Confederation Route reflector, Community Fujitsus GeoStreamR920 of current version does not support BGP4+ federation capability. In all BGP4+ test items it supported, the general performance is fairly good. What needs to be improved is only one item that is to support the migration of undefined property and handle interim duration. It is hoped to improve null interface which cant support next hop at present. Hitachis GR2000-20H of current version supports all test items, and is only product fully supporting BGP4+ protocols in the core routers from 3 Japanese companies. However, it needs to be improved in the following areas: handling next-hop property of IBGP in BGP4+ protocol, using AS_PATH properties to prevent from route loop, the ability of route reflector to detect ORIGINATOR_ID. At the same time, we found in the interoperability test that GR2000-20H cant establish non-physical direct-connection sessions with IBGP peering entities, which Hitachi needs to improve. It is hoped to add loopback address capability. Junipers M20 passes all tests except one item excellently. NECs CX5210 of current version doesnt support BGP4+ route reflector and community properties. In all BGP4+ test items it supported, the general performance is fairly good. However, it needs to be improved in handling BGP4+ federation AS_CONFED_SEQUENCE property. It is hoped to add null interface configuration. Interoperability Test As above mentioned, IPv6 is in initial phase of commercial deployment at present. A large amount of IPv6-capable network equipments and terminals are available. IPv6 network built by the operators doesnt only use the equipment provided by a vendor. In multi-vendor network environment, the interoperability between equipment is vital. The interoperability test is composed of BGP4+ interoperability test and OSPFv3 interoperability test. It should be noted that specific items in the interoperability test only cover some most common properties of BGP4+ and OSPFv3, and are not the interoperability tests of all properties of BGP4+ and OSPFv3. BGP4+ Interoperability Establish IBGP Sessions Test Descriptions: The test is to verify GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920,M20 and fully meshed iBGP connections that can be established. Reference: RFC1771, RFC2545 and RFC2858. Test steps: GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920, M20 and SUT are connected as shown in the following diagram. 4 routers are in a same autonomous domain and are interconnected using IBGP protocol to form a full-meshed IBGP connection. Test instrument and SUT are interconnected using EBGP connection. Because GR2000-20H doesnt support IBGP across-router Session connection, we use a FE link to connect GR2000-20H to M20 to form a fully-meshed connection. Test Results: We verified whether iBGP sessions were established between GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20, and it was found all connections were set up successfully. GR2000-20H CX5210 R920 M20 GR2000-20H N/A OK OK OK CX5210 OK N/A OK OK R920 OK OK N/A OK M20 OK OK OK N/A EBGP- Route Advertisement Test Descriptions: To verify GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20 can advertise routes properly in a fully meshed networks. References: RFC1771, RFC2545 and RFC2858. Test steps: Establish network topology according to previous test, establish eBGP connection between tester and SUT, send 100 EBGP routes from tester to SUT. Results: We verified whether GR2000-20H, CX5210 and R920 and M20 routing tables were correct, and it was found all routing tables were correct. GR2000-20H CX5210 R920 M20 GR2000-20H N/A OK OK OK CX5210 OK N/A OK OK R920 OK OK N/A OK M20 OK OK OK N/A Establish EBGP Sessions Test Descriptions: The test is to verify GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20 can establish a fully meshed eBGP connections. Reference: RFC1771, RFC2545 and RFC2858. Test steps: GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20 are connected as shown in the following diagram. Test Descriptions: We verified whether EBGP sessions were established between GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20, and it was found all connections were established successfully. GR2000-20H CX5210 R920 M20 GR2000-20H N/A OK OK OK CX5210 OK N/A OK OK R920 OK OK N/A OK M20 OK OK OK N/A EBGP Route Advertisement Test Descriptions: To verify GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20 can advertise EBGP routes properly. References: RFC1771, RFC2545 and RFC2858. Test steps: Establish network topology according to previous tests, send routes from each router to all other routers. Test Results: We verified whether GR2000-20H, CX5210 and R920 and M20 routing tables were correct, and it was found all routing tables were correct. GR2000-20H CX5210 R920, M20r GR2000-20H N/A OK OK OK CX5210 OK N/A OK OK R920 OK OK N/A OK M20 OK OK OK N/A OSPFv3 Interoperability OSPF protocols supporting IPv6 is OSPFv3. OSPFv3 routing mechanism is basically same as OSPFv2. However, OSPFv2 relies primarily on IPv4, while OSPFv3 makes many improvements in OSPFv2 and is not a simple extension, thus OSPFv3, whose corresponding protocol is RFC2740, runs on IPv6. For real world applications, many operators regard OSPFv3 as a brand new protocol, also its stability and maturity need to be further verified, so when IPv6 routing protocols are selected, it tends to use IS-ISv6 (draft-ietf-isis-ipv6-02.txt), which is only a simple extension to IS-ISv4 (RFC1195) (2 TLVs re-defined) and does not make changes fully. However, it is sure the opinion is not authoritative and need to be proved. Because of the limitations of test instrument, It is required for SUT to provide 100M Ethernet interface. As CX5210 does not support Ethernet interface at present, just M20, R920 and GR2000-20H were involved in the testing. However, it does not imply that CX5210 cant interoperate with other 3 routers and has any problems with functions implementation. In the test, GR2000-20H is called SUT1 in short, M20 is called SUT2, and R920 is called SUT3. Establish OSPF Connections DR Election Test Descriptions: In the initial status, set different OSPF priority levels for SUT1, SUT2, SUT3 and the test instrument (10, 8, 5, 0). Connect these equipments based on the network topology below. Verify SUT1, SUT2, SUT3 and test instrument to establish OSPFv3 adjacency and vote DR/BDR. After DR/BDR is established properly, put DR off the network, and check whether DR/BDR is established properly. Put off-net equipment on the network, and check whether DR/BDR is established properly. Change OSPF initialization priorities of SUT1, SUT2, SUT3 and test instrument, and implement new test from step 2. Repeat the tests for 4 times, and ensure each SUT and test instrument have one opportunity to be selected as DR and BDR under the intial status. During the test, all SUTs are in the same OSPF Area 0. Reference: RFC2740 Test Results: During the testing, all the OSPF adjacencys can be established between SUTs and DR, also BDR can be elected properly. After DR is off-line, BDR can be re-elected as DR and the one with sub-top priority will be BDR. When off-line equipment is on-line again, no re-electing process occurs. All test results comply with the requirements in related standards. Exchange LSA Database Test Descriptions: Test instrument simulates an internal network with 4 routers connected, and sends the routing information to SUT. Then verify the routing information received by SUT DR from test instruments will be sent to DR Other correctly. Same as the previous test item, firstly SUT1 is used as DR, then SUT2, and finally SUT3. Reference: RFC2740 Test Results: During the testing, OSPF adjacency can be established properly between all SUTs. DR receive LSA information from test instrument and properly send the information to DR Other, which can also receive and process LSA information properly. IPv6 Performance Test The major approach used for the performance testing was to send the IPv6 traffic with different packet sizes and specific QoS information, via SUT to the destination, and then by the tester measure the throughput, latency and packet loss of SUT in various topologies. For the IPv6 performance test, there are four vendors high-end IPv6 routers, with OC-48 POS ports on which throughput and latency will be measured, with IPv6 packet sizes of 64 bytes, 128bytes, 256 bytes, 512 bytes, 1024 bytes, 1480 bytes and 1500 bytes. The performance in various of circumstances were measured, including IPv4/IPv6 mixed traffics (IPv4 and IPv6 traffics with different ratio), IPv6 traffic with packet sizes mixtures, Sweep Packet Sizes. Also the maximum routing table entry supported and the performance on manually configured tunnels were verified. Most of the referred standards is extracted from RFC2544. At present, there are deficient applications for IPv6, and the number of users in the IPv6 network can not be compared to IPv4. The sum of maximum IPv6 of IX(Internet eXchage) traffics is less than dozens of Mbits/s. These traffics can be handled using a router refitted from a PC. Based on the circumstance, is it necessary to test the performance of OC48 ports ? Actually when the operators build IPv6 network and purchase IPv6 routers, todays IPv6 network is not under their consideration. Their networks should be able to deal with the changes and growth of IPv6 network next 5 7 years. In this sense, it is necessary for IPv6 core router to support the IPv6 traffic forwarding capacities at wire rate. Otherwise, what differences can be made between a real IPv6 router and a router refitted from a PC with installed BSD and Zebra ? The measurement of the number of routing table entry also meets the same situations. At present, therere around 300-400 entries in the IPv6 backbone router routing table, which cant compared to the huge number of IPv4 (110,000 ¼Ã‚ 130,000 routes). Secondly, IPv6 has drawn experience and lessons from IPv4 in design and address assignment. RIR only assigns the large block and fixed length IPv6 addresses to IPv6 operators, instead of the end users. To some extent, this can protect IPv6 routing tables from the explosive growth. The strict prefix filtering mechanism was set on BGP4+ routers by most of IPv6 network administrators and the router only allows minor prefixes, such as /16, /24, /28, /32, /35 and etc. However, the experience of IPv4 teach us a lesson- â€Å"Money Talks!†. In the fiercely competitive ages, it is very difficult for operators to reject users requirements. Under the conditions that IPv6 doesnt solve the problems of Multi-homing completely, it is possible that the network operators are required to broadcast users network prefixes into global IPv6 routing tables in order to achieve Multi-homing applications. So far RIR has begun to assign /48 ad dress segment to IPv6 of IX independently, while it is suggested IX doesnt broadcast the addresses. Thirdly, in many IPv6 networks, there are at least two IPv6 addresses segments, from 6BONE(3ffe::/16) and RIR(2001::/16) respectively, and maybe more prefixes will appear in the future. Fourthly, RIR cant ensure IPV6 addresses assigned to IPv6 operators are from a continuous address block. Current assignment policy indicates that /32 addresses of IPv6 assigned to operators can be continuously extended to /29. If new addresses are further required, they must be assigned to discontinuous address blocks and result in the growth of the number of routing tables. To sum up, the test team suggests that the number of IPv6 routing tables supported by the router should be no less than that of IPv4 routing tables, since it is very difficult to estimate the increasing number of routing tables of IPv6 core network right now. In current IPv6 networks, commercial IPv6 network and IPv6 trial network (6BONE) are interlaced without a explicit boundary between them. A packet from commercial IPv6 network may go through many IPv6 trial network before arriving at another IPv6 network. The network administrators of many trial networks are not regarded as a â€Å"operators†, but a â€Å"players† It is pretty unstable of their networks, with routers reset very frequently. In the meantime, the networks advertise global IPv6 routes to all peers, making their own IPv6 network to implement transit. It causes the instability of current IPv6 of BGP routes, and thus it is required the capabilities of IPv6 routers cover the flapping and convergence properly, which should be included in this test, however due to limited test time frame, it is a pity the test team has to give up these tests. The network topology used for the performance test is shown as following: Ideally, the test topology should be as following, so that the packet forwarding capability of the routers in real-world network environment is shown completely. Send one traffic from a source port of the tester, via multiple ports of the router to the destination ports of tester, measure the performance of the router. However as the vendors cant provide enough OC48 ports, the test team can only perform the test by simply sending packets from one port and receiving packets form another port. In this sense, this test environment cant simulate completely the performance of the router in the real-world network environment. The Measurement of Throughput and Latency with Different IPv6 Packets Sizes at OC-48 POS port Test Descriptions: To test the maximum IPv6 packet forwarding rate of SUT with zero packet loss with different IPv6 packet sizes. Test Methods: Send IPv6 packets, via SUT to the destination ports of the tester, which measures the packet rate of SUT according to the received IPv6 packets. Set the initial offered load to 2%, and If no packet loss occurs, increase the offered load to 100% and repeat the test. If packet loss occurs, decrease the offered load to (100%+2%)/2=51%, repeat the test again†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦In a binary search manner, continue to increase or decrease the offered load in subsequent iterations until the difference in offered load between successful and failed tests is less than the resolution for the test. This is the zero-loss throughput rate. Traffic forwarding mode: full duplex. Offered Packet type: IPv6; Offered Packet size (bytes): 64 128 256 512 1024 1480 1500 Test duration of each packet type(s): 5 Bandwidth resolution (%): 0.1 Line BER tolerance (10^_): -10 The results are as follows: Sustainable Throughput of OC-48 POS Port 105.00% 100.00% 95.00% 90.00% 85.00% 80.00% 75.00% 70.00% 65.00% 60.00% 55.00% 50.00% 64 128 256 512 1024 1480 1500 bytes bytes bytes bytes bytes bytes bytes Test Packets Size Average Latency (us) at Variable Test Packets Size 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Test Packets Size Hitachi NEC Fujistu Juniper Hitachi NEC Fujistu Juniper Note: About inherent latency of tester Before we perform tests, we must consider intrinsic latency of tester. The following table indicates inherent latency of tester for different test packet sizes when sending 100% offered load. Inherent latency of tester (100% offered load) Packet Size (bytes) 64 128 256 512 1024 1480 1500 Average Inherent 2.74 2.69 2.69 2.65 2.65 2.60 2.60 Latency (us) From the above, the inherent latency of tester under different packet sizes is about 2.7us. Compared to the tens of us of SUTs latency, there are not significant impacts on the test results. In addition, the impact of inherent latency is fair to these 4 SUTs. Forwarding Performance of IPv4/IPv6 Packets on OC48 Ports Test Descriptions: To verify the performance of SUT to forward IPv4/IPv6 packets in offered packets sizes. The test requires SUT to support IPv4/IPv6 dual protocol stacks. Test Methods: The tester sends IPv4 and IPv6 traffic simultaneously in full duplex configuration, via SUT to the destination port, measure the throughput and latency with various ratio of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic. Send traffic with 50% of IPv4 and 50% of IPv6 and 100% offered load first time. If packet loss occurs, decrease the offered load in 5% resolution until the difference in offered load between successful and failed tests is less than the resolution for the test. This is the zero-loss throughput rate. At the same time, measure the latency at maximum forwarding rate. Then change the ratio of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic to test again. Increase continuously the proportion of IPv6 traffic to simulate the change of traffic characteristics in the real-world network transition. Test Descriptions: Offered load (%): initial100% with 5% increment and final 0 Offered packet types: IPv6 Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic: 50:50—10:90 (IPv4:IPv6) Offered packet size (bytes): 62 512 1518 Test duration of each packet size(s): 5 The test results are as follows: Sustainable throughput of OC-48 POS port at packet size 64 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Sustainable Throughput of OC-48 POS Port at Packet Size 64 bytes with different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 105% 100% 95% 90% 85% Hitachi 80% NEC 75% Fujistu 70% Juniper 65% 60% 55% 50% 50/50 40/60 30/70 20/80 10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Sustainable throughput of OC-48 POS port at packet size 512 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Sustainable Throughput of OC-48 POS Port at Packet Size 512 bytes with different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 105% 100% 95% 90% 85% Hitachi 80% NEC 75% Fujistu 70% Juniper 65% 60% 55% 50% 50/50 40/60 30/70 20/80 10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Sustainable throughput of OC-48 POS port at packet size 1518 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Sustainable Throughput of OC-48 POS Port at Packet Size 1518 bytes with different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 105% 100% 95% 90% 85% Hitachi 80% NEC 75% Fujistu 70% Juniper 65% 60% 55% 50% 50/50 40/60 30/70 20/80 10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Average latency (us) at test packets size 64 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Average Latency (us) at Test Packets Size 64 bytes with Different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 50/50 40/6 30/70 20/80 10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Hitachi NEC Fujistu Juniper Average latency (us) at test packets size 512 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Average Latency (us) at Test Packets Size 512 bytes with Different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 50/50 40/60 30/70 20/80 10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Hitachi NEC Fujistu Juniper Average latency (us) at test packets size 1518 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Average Latency (us) at Test Packets Size 1518 bytes with Different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 50/50 40/60 30/70 20/80  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Hitachi NEC Fujistu Juniper IPv6 over IPv4 Configured Tunneling Performance of OC-48 POS Port Test Description: Tunneling technology is an effective means to connect separate IPv6 networks via IPv4 backbone. This item is to verify the performance of SUT when SUT encapsulates IPv6 data packets into IPv4 payload and forwards the packets. Test Method: The tester sends IPv6 data packets to SUT, and configures an IPv6 over IPv4 tunnel between SUT and the tester. Thus after SUT receives pure IPv6 packets from the tester, it will encapsulate it into IPv4 packet payload, and send IPv6 packets to destination over IPv4 network. The tester analyzes the packets forwared by the SUT at receiving end, calculates the throughput of SUT for different sizes of packets under the IPv6 over IPv4 configured tunnel. Test Results: IPv6 packet size: 512 Destination address of sending IPv6 data packets: 3FFE:0:0:4::2/64 Bandwidth range of sending IPv6 tra Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) Analysis Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) Analysis Overview Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the next generation of protocol defined by InternetEngineering Task force (IETF) to replace the exiting IPv4 protocol. At present, the majority of Internet users are still using IPv4 protocol, and given that most of current networking applications and network equipment run in IPv4 environments, the migration from IPv4 to IPv6 cant be accomplished overnight. It is predictable that the migration will be a long-term process (it is forecasted that the process will take 10 20 years). During the migration, IPv4 and IPv6 will coexist in a same network. This migration process poses new challenges on the routers that are the core equipment in IP network. Traditional routers cant accommodate new future network with IPv4/v6 coexistence. The routers must be improved and upgraded so that they can support both IPv4 and IPv6.Given that the core router is very important and carries huge Internet traffics, it must be able to support IPv6 forwarding at wire rate. It means ASIC chip, but not software is used to support IPv6 packet processing. At the same time, it is very important that this support cant sacrifice any IPv4 performance. After all, most of current traffics is IPv4. The core router must expand to support IPv6 routing tables and needs to support IPv6 routing protocols, such as BGP4+, OSPFv3, ISISv6, RIPng and etc. It needs to support some migration strategy from IPv4 to IPv6, such as Tunnel, Dual Stack, Translation and etc. Same as many network technologies, successful deployment of IPv6 relies on the deployment of the operators IPv6 network. As one core component in IPv6 network, IPv6 core router is key to network building, applications, performance and stability. At present, mainstream router vendors like Cisco and Juniper announce that their routers can support IPv6 while some traditional IT equipment manufactures, especially those in Japan, think Internet upgrade caused by IPv6 will change the whole landscape of router market, which brings significant opportunities for them to enter router market. From 2000 to 2002, Hitachi, NEC and Fujitsu announced IPv6-capable core router to gain some market share in new Internet network. It must be admitted that IPv6 is still in the initial phase at present, which is reflected in the following aspects: most IPv6 network is in trial phase, the number of access users is low, carried IPv6 traffics cant be comparable to IPv4, the interoperability between IPv6 equipment still needs to be proved, and network engineers lack in experience in large-scale deployment and operation of IPv6 network. The lack of data and experience is one of important causes that make some operators lack in confidence in IPv6 network deployment. Many operators take wait-and-see attitudes. In order to prove IPv6 router (especially IPv6 core router), the support to IPv6, how are they performed and interoperated, provide a practical data basis for the operators to deploy IPv6 network and provide a reference for equipment manufactures to evaluate and improve their equipment, BII(Beijing Internet Institute) collaborate with 6TNet (IPv6 Telecom Trial Network) in China tested IPv6 core routers from 4 ven dors (Fujitsu, Hitachi, Juniper and NEC) in Beijing from October to December 2002. BII performed protocol conformance, performance and  interoperability tests. In these tests, we used the test instruments provided by Agilent and received strong technical support from Agilent. The test is not a comparative performance test in different router vendors. The purpose is to verify the feasibility of IPv6 deployment. With this test, the test team thinks that all SUT (system under test) has the ability to support commercial IPv6 network and provide basic IPv6 capabilities. They can support IPv6 routing protocols, support the forwarding of IPv6 datagram at wire rate and provide interoperability between them. From perspectives of pure technology, the test team thinks the products have been ready to deploy basic IPv6 core network.. Brief Descriptions of Test The requirements for hardware provided by the SUT (system under test) are as follows: IPv6-capable core router OC48 SM ports (both ports must be in different boards) Supports both FE ports and GE ports. The number of FE ports and GE ports is no less than 3 Finally, all vendors basically meet those requirements, although CX5210 provided by NEC doesnt support FE during the time of testing. The requirement for IPv6 capabilities provided by the SUT (system under test) include: support of IPv6 forwarding in hardware and support of related IPv6 routing protocols and migration strategy. Finally, all vendors meet our requirements as shown in the following table. Company IPv6 hardwareDual Stack RIPng OSPFv3 BGP4+ IPv6 over IPv4 forwarding Tunnel Fujitsu 9 9 9 9 9 9 Hitachi 9 9 9 9 9 9 Juniper 9 9 9 9 9 9 NEC 9 9 9 9 9 9 The SUT (system under test) models and OS versions are shown in the following table. Company Model Version Fujitsu Geostream R920 E10V02L03C44 Hitachi GR2000-20H S-9181-61 07-01 [ROUTE-OS6] Juniper M20 5.5R1.2 NEC CX5210 02.0(2e) 45.08.00 The test instruments we used in the test are as follows: Agilent Router Tester 900 Version: Router Tester 5.1,Build 11.15. Agilent QA Robot Version: Router Tester 5.3,Build 5.2 The IPv6 core router test is composed of three parts: Protocol conformance test, interoperability test and IPv6 performance test. Basic IPv6 Protocols and RIPng Basic IPv6 protocols include IPv6 Specification (RFC2460), ICMPv6 (RFC2463), Neighbor Discovery (RFC2461), Stateless Autoconfiguration (RFC2462), Path MTU Discovery (RFC1981), IPv6 address Architecture (RFC1884) and etc., which are basic capabilities provided by an IPv6 implementation. RIPng is defined by RFC2080 and is the extension and expansion of RIPv2. Its basic capabilities are same as RIPv2. The routing information exchanged by RIPng can carry IPv6 addresses and prefixes. RIPng runs on IPv6 network, uses multicasting address ff02::9 as destination to transfer routing information. RIPng is not compatible with RIPv2. RIP protocol is typically used in small networks and is not deployed in large networks because of its scalability and performance, which is same in IPv6 networks. The test does not include basic IPv6 protocols and RIPng because we think both capabilities are most basic and most preliminary capabilities that should be provided in an IPv6 router, these capabilities are implemented and interoperated very well in the routers from 4 vendors, and the 4 tested routers have been tested publicly or non-publicly several times in different occasions and provided good data. Therefore, we think it is unnecessary to make efforts to repeat these work and we skipped this test and focused on more challenged test items. BGP4+ Protocol Conformance Test At present, the external gateway protocol used in the IPv4 network is BGP4. Its basic protocols are defined in RFC1771. In order to carry IPv6 network information in BGP4 updates, IETF has defined a special property multi-protocol BGP (MP-BGP), also called IPv6 NLRI (Network Layer Reachability Information) to exchange IPv6 routing information, which is not a new version of BGP protocol, but an extension to BGP4. The extension is generally called BGP4+, which is compatible with BGP4. Refer to RFC2545 for its definition. Test Purpose and Used Standards: Purpose: To test the implementation of BGP4+ and conform with related standards for SUT (System Under Test). The following standards are referred in the test: Bates, T., Chandra, R., Katz, D. and Y. Rekhter, â€Å"Multiprotocol Extension for BGP-4†, RFC 2858, Jne 2000. Bates, T., Chandra, R., Chen, E., â€Å"BGP Route Reflection An Alternative to Full Mesh IBGP†, RFC2796, April 2000. Chandra, R. and J.Scudder, â€Å"Capabilities Advertisement with BGP-4†, RFC 2842, May 2000. Dupont, F. and P. Marques, â€Å"Use of BGP-4 Multiprotocol Extensions for IPv6 Inter-Domain Routing†, RFC 2545, March 1999. Rekhter, Y. and T. Li, â€Å"A Border Gateway Protocol 4 (BGP-4) †. Traina, P., McPherson, D., Scudder, J., â€Å"Autonomous System Confederations for BGP†, RFC3065, February 2001. Test Methods: All the tests are based on topology emulation. One test port of instrument firstly establishes network topology emulation, then executes pre-written scripts, interacts with the port of SUT, performs related BGP4+ protocol tests individually and each test generates Passed/Failed record. The tests can be divided into active tests and passive tests. Active test means the tester is used to verify the state machine of SUT and the correctness of message format while passive test means the tester is used to interfere with SUT using messages with errors. Test Topology Test instrument and SUT use two independent Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet connections. All BGP4+ runs on the Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet connections. The physical topology is as follows: The logical topology is as follows: Test Items and Descriptions of Test Results: The BGP4+ protocol conformance test involves in the BGP multi-protocol extension, setup and transfer of BGP4+ IBGP and EBGP sessions, ability to receive IPv6 route updates, BGP4+ next hop, starting point, MED, local preference, AS_PATH, atom aggregation, community name and various properties, the ability of SUT to correctly process these properties, BGP4+ route reflector capability, BGP4+ federation capability. These tests can only ensure implementation of BGP4+protocol in SUT comply with the standard defined by RFC, and cant ensure SUT fully and successfully deploy BGP4+ routes in commercial IPv6 network. The following diagram briefly describes the test results. Attached table 1 includes all test items, description and detailed results of BGP4+ conformance tests for 4 routers. The test items and descriptions are extracted from RFC2858, RFC2545, RFC2842, RFC2796, RFC3065 and draft-ietf-idr-bgp4-14.txt part. Model Failed test items Fujitsu GeoStream R920 2 Hitachi GR2000-20H 5 Juniper M20 1 NEC CX5210 3 Analysis of Test Results: Capabilities not supported Confederation Route reflector, Community Fujitsus GeoStreamR920 of current version does not support BGP4+ federation capability. In all BGP4+ test items it supported, the general performance is fairly good. What needs to be improved is only one item that is to support the migration of undefined property and handle interim duration. It is hoped to improve null interface which cant support next hop at present. Hitachis GR2000-20H of current version supports all test items, and is only product fully supporting BGP4+ protocols in the core routers from 3 Japanese companies. However, it needs to be improved in the following areas: handling next-hop property of IBGP in BGP4+ protocol, using AS_PATH properties to prevent from route loop, the ability of route reflector to detect ORIGINATOR_ID. At the same time, we found in the interoperability test that GR2000-20H cant establish non-physical direct-connection sessions with IBGP peering entities, which Hitachi needs to improve. It is hoped to add loopback address capability. Junipers M20 passes all tests except one item excellently. NECs CX5210 of current version doesnt support BGP4+ route reflector and community properties. In all BGP4+ test items it supported, the general performance is fairly good. However, it needs to be improved in handling BGP4+ federation AS_CONFED_SEQUENCE property. It is hoped to add null interface configuration. Interoperability Test As above mentioned, IPv6 is in initial phase of commercial deployment at present. A large amount of IPv6-capable network equipments and terminals are available. IPv6 network built by the operators doesnt only use the equipment provided by a vendor. In multi-vendor network environment, the interoperability between equipment is vital. The interoperability test is composed of BGP4+ interoperability test and OSPFv3 interoperability test. It should be noted that specific items in the interoperability test only cover some most common properties of BGP4+ and OSPFv3, and are not the interoperability tests of all properties of BGP4+ and OSPFv3. BGP4+ Interoperability Establish IBGP Sessions Test Descriptions: The test is to verify GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920,M20 and fully meshed iBGP connections that can be established. Reference: RFC1771, RFC2545 and RFC2858. Test steps: GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920, M20 and SUT are connected as shown in the following diagram. 4 routers are in a same autonomous domain and are interconnected using IBGP protocol to form a full-meshed IBGP connection. Test instrument and SUT are interconnected using EBGP connection. Because GR2000-20H doesnt support IBGP across-router Session connection, we use a FE link to connect GR2000-20H to M20 to form a fully-meshed connection. Test Results: We verified whether iBGP sessions were established between GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20, and it was found all connections were set up successfully. GR2000-20H CX5210 R920 M20 GR2000-20H N/A OK OK OK CX5210 OK N/A OK OK R920 OK OK N/A OK M20 OK OK OK N/A EBGP- Route Advertisement Test Descriptions: To verify GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20 can advertise routes properly in a fully meshed networks. References: RFC1771, RFC2545 and RFC2858. Test steps: Establish network topology according to previous test, establish eBGP connection between tester and SUT, send 100 EBGP routes from tester to SUT. Results: We verified whether GR2000-20H, CX5210 and R920 and M20 routing tables were correct, and it was found all routing tables were correct. GR2000-20H CX5210 R920 M20 GR2000-20H N/A OK OK OK CX5210 OK N/A OK OK R920 OK OK N/A OK M20 OK OK OK N/A Establish EBGP Sessions Test Descriptions: The test is to verify GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20 can establish a fully meshed eBGP connections. Reference: RFC1771, RFC2545 and RFC2858. Test steps: GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20 are connected as shown in the following diagram. Test Descriptions: We verified whether EBGP sessions were established between GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20, and it was found all connections were established successfully. GR2000-20H CX5210 R920 M20 GR2000-20H N/A OK OK OK CX5210 OK N/A OK OK R920 OK OK N/A OK M20 OK OK OK N/A EBGP Route Advertisement Test Descriptions: To verify GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20 can advertise EBGP routes properly. References: RFC1771, RFC2545 and RFC2858. Test steps: Establish network topology according to previous tests, send routes from each router to all other routers. Test Results: We verified whether GR2000-20H, CX5210 and R920 and M20 routing tables were correct, and it was found all routing tables were correct. GR2000-20H CX5210 R920, M20r GR2000-20H N/A OK OK OK CX5210 OK N/A OK OK R920 OK OK N/A OK M20 OK OK OK N/A OSPFv3 Interoperability OSPF protocols supporting IPv6 is OSPFv3. OSPFv3 routing mechanism is basically same as OSPFv2. However, OSPFv2 relies primarily on IPv4, while OSPFv3 makes many improvements in OSPFv2 and is not a simple extension, thus OSPFv3, whose corresponding protocol is RFC2740, runs on IPv6. For real world applications, many operators regard OSPFv3 as a brand new protocol, also its stability and maturity need to be further verified, so when IPv6 routing protocols are selected, it tends to use IS-ISv6 (draft-ietf-isis-ipv6-02.txt), which is only a simple extension to IS-ISv4 (RFC1195) (2 TLVs re-defined) and does not make changes fully. However, it is sure the opinion is not authoritative and need to be proved. Because of the limitations of test instrument, It is required for SUT to provide 100M Ethernet interface. As CX5210 does not support Ethernet interface at present, just M20, R920 and GR2000-20H were involved in the testing. However, it does not imply that CX5210 cant interoperate with other 3 routers and has any problems with functions implementation. In the test, GR2000-20H is called SUT1 in short, M20 is called SUT2, and R920 is called SUT3. Establish OSPF Connections DR Election Test Descriptions: In the initial status, set different OSPF priority levels for SUT1, SUT2, SUT3 and the test instrument (10, 8, 5, 0). Connect these equipments based on the network topology below. Verify SUT1, SUT2, SUT3 and test instrument to establish OSPFv3 adjacency and vote DR/BDR. After DR/BDR is established properly, put DR off the network, and check whether DR/BDR is established properly. Put off-net equipment on the network, and check whether DR/BDR is established properly. Change OSPF initialization priorities of SUT1, SUT2, SUT3 and test instrument, and implement new test from step 2. Repeat the tests for 4 times, and ensure each SUT and test instrument have one opportunity to be selected as DR and BDR under the intial status. During the test, all SUTs are in the same OSPF Area 0. Reference: RFC2740 Test Results: During the testing, all the OSPF adjacencys can be established between SUTs and DR, also BDR can be elected properly. After DR is off-line, BDR can be re-elected as DR and the one with sub-top priority will be BDR. When off-line equipment is on-line again, no re-electing process occurs. All test results comply with the requirements in related standards. Exchange LSA Database Test Descriptions: Test instrument simulates an internal network with 4 routers connected, and sends the routing information to SUT. Then verify the routing information received by SUT DR from test instruments will be sent to DR Other correctly. Same as the previous test item, firstly SUT1 is used as DR, then SUT2, and finally SUT3. Reference: RFC2740 Test Results: During the testing, OSPF adjacency can be established properly between all SUTs. DR receive LSA information from test instrument and properly send the information to DR Other, which can also receive and process LSA information properly. IPv6 Performance Test The major approach used for the performance testing was to send the IPv6 traffic with different packet sizes and specific QoS information, via SUT to the destination, and then by the tester measure the throughput, latency and packet loss of SUT in various topologies. For the IPv6 performance test, there are four vendors high-end IPv6 routers, with OC-48 POS ports on which throughput and latency will be measured, with IPv6 packet sizes of 64 bytes, 128bytes, 256 bytes, 512 bytes, 1024 bytes, 1480 bytes and 1500 bytes. The performance in various of circumstances were measured, including IPv4/IPv6 mixed traffics (IPv4 and IPv6 traffics with different ratio), IPv6 traffic with packet sizes mixtures, Sweep Packet Sizes. Also the maximum routing table entry supported and the performance on manually configured tunnels were verified. Most of the referred standards is extracted from RFC2544. At present, there are deficient applications for IPv6, and the number of users in the IPv6 network can not be compared to IPv4. The sum of maximum IPv6 of IX(Internet eXchage) traffics is less than dozens of Mbits/s. These traffics can be handled using a router refitted from a PC. Based on the circumstance, is it necessary to test the performance of OC48 ports ? Actually when the operators build IPv6 network and purchase IPv6 routers, todays IPv6 network is not under their consideration. Their networks should be able to deal with the changes and growth of IPv6 network next 5 7 years. In this sense, it is necessary for IPv6 core router to support the IPv6 traffic forwarding capacities at wire rate. Otherwise, what differences can be made between a real IPv6 router and a router refitted from a PC with installed BSD and Zebra ? The measurement of the number of routing table entry also meets the same situations. At present, therere around 300-400 entries in the IPv6 backbone router routing table, which cant compared to the huge number of IPv4 (110,000 ¼Ã‚ 130,000 routes). Secondly, IPv6 has drawn experience and lessons from IPv4 in design and address assignment. RIR only assigns the large block and fixed length IPv6 addresses to IPv6 operators, instead of the end users. To some extent, this can protect IPv6 routing tables from the explosive growth. The strict prefix filtering mechanism was set on BGP4+ routers by most of IPv6 network administrators and the router only allows minor prefixes, such as /16, /24, /28, /32, /35 and etc. However, the experience of IPv4 teach us a lesson- â€Å"Money Talks!†. In the fiercely competitive ages, it is very difficult for operators to reject users requirements. Under the conditions that IPv6 doesnt solve the problems of Multi-homing completely, it is possible that the network operators are required to broadcast users network prefixes into global IPv6 routing tables in order to achieve Multi-homing applications. So far RIR has begun to assign /48 ad dress segment to IPv6 of IX independently, while it is suggested IX doesnt broadcast the addresses. Thirdly, in many IPv6 networks, there are at least two IPv6 addresses segments, from 6BONE(3ffe::/16) and RIR(2001::/16) respectively, and maybe more prefixes will appear in the future. Fourthly, RIR cant ensure IPV6 addresses assigned to IPv6 operators are from a continuous address block. Current assignment policy indicates that /32 addresses of IPv6 assigned to operators can be continuously extended to /29. If new addresses are further required, they must be assigned to discontinuous address blocks and result in the growth of the number of routing tables. To sum up, the test team suggests that the number of IPv6 routing tables supported by the router should be no less than that of IPv4 routing tables, since it is very difficult to estimate the increasing number of routing tables of IPv6 core network right now. In current IPv6 networks, commercial IPv6 network and IPv6 trial network (6BONE) are interlaced without a explicit boundary between them. A packet from commercial IPv6 network may go through many IPv6 trial network before arriving at another IPv6 network. The network administrators of many trial networks are not regarded as a â€Å"operators†, but a â€Å"players† It is pretty unstable of their networks, with routers reset very frequently. In the meantime, the networks advertise global IPv6 routes to all peers, making their own IPv6 network to implement transit. It causes the instability of current IPv6 of BGP routes, and thus it is required the capabilities of IPv6 routers cover the flapping and convergence properly, which should be included in this test, however due to limited test time frame, it is a pity the test team has to give up these tests. The network topology used for the performance test is shown as following: Ideally, the test topology should be as following, so that the packet forwarding capability of the routers in real-world network environment is shown completely. Send one traffic from a source port of the tester, via multiple ports of the router to the destination ports of tester, measure the performance of the router. However as the vendors cant provide enough OC48 ports, the test team can only perform the test by simply sending packets from one port and receiving packets form another port. In this sense, this test environment cant simulate completely the performance of the router in the real-world network environment. The Measurement of Throughput and Latency with Different IPv6 Packets Sizes at OC-48 POS port Test Descriptions: To test the maximum IPv6 packet forwarding rate of SUT with zero packet loss with different IPv6 packet sizes. Test Methods: Send IPv6 packets, via SUT to the destination ports of the tester, which measures the packet rate of SUT according to the received IPv6 packets. Set the initial offered load to 2%, and If no packet loss occurs, increase the offered load to 100% and repeat the test. If packet loss occurs, decrease the offered load to (100%+2%)/2=51%, repeat the test again†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦In a binary search manner, continue to increase or decrease the offered load in subsequent iterations until the difference in offered load between successful and failed tests is less than the resolution for the test. This is the zero-loss throughput rate. Traffic forwarding mode: full duplex. Offered Packet type: IPv6; Offered Packet size (bytes): 64 128 256 512 1024 1480 1500 Test duration of each packet type(s): 5 Bandwidth resolution (%): 0.1 Line BER tolerance (10^_): -10 The results are as follows: Sustainable Throughput of OC-48 POS Port 105.00% 100.00% 95.00% 90.00% 85.00% 80.00% 75.00% 70.00% 65.00% 60.00% 55.00% 50.00% 64 128 256 512 1024 1480 1500 bytes bytes bytes bytes bytes bytes bytes Test Packets Size Average Latency (us) at Variable Test Packets Size 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Test Packets Size Hitachi NEC Fujistu Juniper Hitachi NEC Fujistu Juniper Note: About inherent latency of tester Before we perform tests, we must consider intrinsic latency of tester. The following table indicates inherent latency of tester for different test packet sizes when sending 100% offered load. Inherent latency of tester (100% offered load) Packet Size (bytes) 64 128 256 512 1024 1480 1500 Average Inherent 2.74 2.69 2.69 2.65 2.65 2.60 2.60 Latency (us) From the above, the inherent latency of tester under different packet sizes is about 2.7us. Compared to the tens of us of SUTs latency, there are not significant impacts on the test results. In addition, the impact of inherent latency is fair to these 4 SUTs. Forwarding Performance of IPv4/IPv6 Packets on OC48 Ports Test Descriptions: To verify the performance of SUT to forward IPv4/IPv6 packets in offered packets sizes. The test requires SUT to support IPv4/IPv6 dual protocol stacks. Test Methods: The tester sends IPv4 and IPv6 traffic simultaneously in full duplex configuration, via SUT to the destination port, measure the throughput and latency with various ratio of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic. Send traffic with 50% of IPv4 and 50% of IPv6 and 100% offered load first time. If packet loss occurs, decrease the offered load in 5% resolution until the difference in offered load between successful and failed tests is less than the resolution for the test. This is the zero-loss throughput rate. At the same time, measure the latency at maximum forwarding rate. Then change the ratio of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic to test again. Increase continuously the proportion of IPv6 traffic to simulate the change of traffic characteristics in the real-world network transition. Test Descriptions: Offered load (%): initial100% with 5% increment and final 0 Offered packet types: IPv6 Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic: 50:50—10:90 (IPv4:IPv6) Offered packet size (bytes): 62 512 1518 Test duration of each packet size(s): 5 The test results are as follows: Sustainable throughput of OC-48 POS port at packet size 64 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Sustainable Throughput of OC-48 POS Port at Packet Size 64 bytes with different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 105% 100% 95% 90% 85% Hitachi 80% NEC 75% Fujistu 70% Juniper 65% 60% 55% 50% 50/50 40/60 30/70 20/80 10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Sustainable throughput of OC-48 POS port at packet size 512 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Sustainable Throughput of OC-48 POS Port at Packet Size 512 bytes with different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 105% 100% 95% 90% 85% Hitachi 80% NEC 75% Fujistu 70% Juniper 65% 60% 55% 50% 50/50 40/60 30/70 20/80 10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Sustainable throughput of OC-48 POS port at packet size 1518 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Sustainable Throughput of OC-48 POS Port at Packet Size 1518 bytes with different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 105% 100% 95% 90% 85% Hitachi 80% NEC 75% Fujistu 70% Juniper 65% 60% 55% 50% 50/50 40/60 30/70 20/80 10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Average latency (us) at test packets size 64 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Average Latency (us) at Test Packets Size 64 bytes with Different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 50/50 40/6 30/70 20/80 10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Hitachi NEC Fujistu Juniper Average latency (us) at test packets size 512 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Average Latency (us) at Test Packets Size 512 bytes with Different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 50/50 40/60 30/70 20/80 10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Hitachi NEC Fujistu Juniper Average latency (us) at test packets size 1518 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Average Latency (us) at Test Packets Size 1518 bytes with Different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 50/50 40/60 30/70 20/80  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Hitachi NEC Fujistu Juniper IPv6 over IPv4 Configured Tunneling Performance of OC-48 POS Port Test Description: Tunneling technology is an effective means to connect separate IPv6 networks via IPv4 backbone. This item is to verify the performance of SUT when SUT encapsulates IPv6 data packets into IPv4 payload and forwards the packets. Test Method: The tester sends IPv6 data packets to SUT, and configures an IPv6 over IPv4 tunnel between SUT and the tester. Thus after SUT receives pure IPv6 packets from the tester, it will encapsulate it into IPv4 packet payload, and send IPv6 packets to destination over IPv4 network. The tester analyzes the packets forwared by the SUT at receiving end, calculates the throughput of SUT for different sizes of packets under the IPv6 over IPv4 configured tunnel. Test Results: IPv6 packet size: 512 Destination address of sending IPv6 data packets: 3FFE:0:0:4::2/64 Bandwidth range of sending IPv6 tra